The Rights of Nature

An Emerging Transformation Opportunity for Evaluation

Authors

  • Louise Gallagher Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland
  • Zenda Ofir Stellenbosch University, South Africa; Robert Bosch Academy, Berlin

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.3138/cjpe.71575

Keywords:

environmental evaluation, institutional innovation, post-normal evaluation, Rights of Nature, transformation

Abstract

“Building back better” in the post-COVID-19 Anthropocene era requires novel ideas and ways of working to truly challenge “business as usual” and contribute to urgently needed systems transformations. This article invites post-normal evaluation professionals to engage with the concept of the Rights of Nature, a generative form of institutional innovation that recognizes ecosystems and natural communities as entities that have an independent right to exist and flourish that can be enforced under legal or social norms. Pathways are suggested to use evaluation as values-driven practice to reflect on and encourage human-nature relationships founded on mutual dependence, cooperation, and synergy

References

Abson, D. J., Fischer, J., Leventon, J., Newig, J., Schomerus, T., Vilsmaier, U., . . . Lang, D. J. (2017). Leverage points for sustainability transformation. Ambio, 46(1), 30 – 39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-016-0800-y. Medline:27344324

Ansell, C., & Geyer, R. (2017). “Pragmatic complexity”: A new foundation for moving beyond “evidence-based policy making”? Policy Studies, 38(2), 149 – 167. https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2016.1219033

ANZEA & SUPERU. (2015, June). Evaluation standards for Aotearoa New Zealand: For people commissioning, using, participating in, or conducting evaluations. https://www.anzea.org.nz/app/uploads/2019/04/ANZEA-Superu-Evaluation-standardsfinal-020415.pdf

Associated Press. (2016, January 7). Monkey selfie case: Judge rules animal cannot own his own photo copyright. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jan/06/monkey-selfie-case-animal-photo-copyright

Avelino, F. (2017). Power in sustainability transitions: Analysing power and (dis)empowerment in transformative change towards sustainability. Environmental Policy and Governance, 27(6), 505 – 520. https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.1777

Bieluk, J. (2020). River as a legal person. Studia Iuridica Lublinensia, 29(2), 11-23. https://doi.org/10.17951/sil.2020.29.2.11-23

Boyd, D. R. (2011). The environmental rights revolution: A global study of constitutions, human rights, and the environment. University of British Columbia Press.

Burdon, P. (2010). The rights of nature: Reconsidered. Australian Humanities Review, 49. https://doi.org/10.22459/ahr.49.2010.04

Buschschlüter, V. (2020, November 30). Nemonte nenquimo: The Indigenous leader named environmental hero. BBC Latin America. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latinamerica-55122550

Capra, F., & Mattei, U. (2015). The ecology of law: Toward a legal system in tune with nature and community (1st ed.). Berrett-Koehler.

Carter, B., & Harris, O. J. T. (2020). The end of normal politics: Assemblages, non-humans and international relations. In J. Pereira & A. Saramago (Eds.), Non-human nature in world politics: Frontiers in international relations (pp. 13-31). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49496-4_2

CELDF. (n.d.). Community environmental legal defense fund. https://celdf.org/advancingcommunity-rights/rights-of-nature/

Chapron, G., Epstein, Y., & López-Bao, J. V. (2019). A rights revolution for nature. Science, 363(6434), 1392 – 1393. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav5601. Medline:30872530

Chouinard, J. A. (2016). Introduction: Decolonizing international development evaluation. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, 30(3), 237 – 247. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjpe.30.3.01

Cram, F., Tibbetts, K. A., & LaFrance, J. (2018). Editors’ notes: A stepping stone in Indigenous evaluation. New Directions for Evaluation, 2018(159), 7 – 16. https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.20327

Deane, K. L., & Harré, N. (2016). Developing a thoughtful approach to evaluation: Values-driven guidelines for novice evaluators . Evaluation Matters—He Take Tō Te Aromatawai, 2, 53 – 78. https://doi.org/10.18296/em.0011

DEFRA. (2020). Complexity evaluation framework: Recognising complexity & key considerations for complexity-appropriate evaluation in the department for environment, food and rural affairs. Author. http://randd.defra.gov.uk/

De Vries-Stotijn, A., Van Ham, I., & Bastmeijer , K. (2019). Protection through property: From private to river-held rights. Water International, 44(6–7), 736 – 751. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2019.1641882

Dsouza, A. (2020, October 21). How to win legal rights for South Asia’s Rivers. International Rivers. https://www.internationalrivers.org/news/how-to-win-legal-rights-forsouth-asias-rivers/

Earth law Center. (n.d.). https://www.earthlawcenter.org/what-is-earth-law

Espinosa, C. (2019). Interpretive affinities: The constitutionalization of rights of nature, Pacha Mama, in Ecuador. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 21(5), 608 – 622. https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908x.2015.1116379

Eyben, R., Guijt, I., Roche, C., & Shutt, C. (Eds.). (2015). The politics of evidence and results in international development: Playing the game to change the rules? Practical Action.

Feger, C., Mermet, L., Vira, B., Addison, P. F. E., Barker, R., Birkin, F., … Sutherland, W. J. (2019). Four priorities for new links between conservation science and accounting research. Conservation Biology, 33(4), 972 – 975. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13254. Medline:30456769.

Gallagher, L. , Kopainsky, B., Bassi, A. M., Betancourt, A., Buth, C., Chan, P., . . . Bréthaut, C. (2020). Supporting stakeholders to anticipate and respond to risks in a Mekong River water-energy-food nexus. Ecology and Society, 25 (4), art29. https://doi.org/10.5751/es-11919-250429

Gaotlhobogwe, M., Major, T. E., Koloi-Keaikitse, S., & Chilisa, B. (2018). Conceptualizing evaluation in African contexts. New Directions for Evaluation, 2018(159), 47 – 62. https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.20332

Gavin, M. C., McCarter, J., Berkes, F., Mead, A. T. P., Sterling, E. J., Tang, R., & Turner, N. J. (2018). Effective biodiversity conservation requires dynamic, pluralistic, partnership-based approaches . Sustainability, 10(6), 1846. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10061846

Gerlak, A. K., Heikkila, T., & Newig, J. (2020). Learning in environmental governance: Opportunities for translating theory to practice. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 22(5), 1 – 14. https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908x.2020.1776100

GIZ. (2020). Transforming our work: Getting ready for transformational projects. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. https://www.giz.de/fachexpertise/downloads/Transfomation%20Guidance_GIZ_02%202020.pdf

Global Alliance for the Rights of Nature (GARN). (n.d.). https://www.therightsofnature.org/frequently-asked-questions/

Hamilton, C., Gemenne, F., & Bonneuil, C. (2015). The Anthropocene and the global environmental crisis: Rethinking modernity in a new epoch. Taylor and Francis.

Hargrave, T. J., & Van de Ven, A. H. (2006). A collective action model of institutional innovation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 864 – 888 . https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527458

Hickel, J., & Kallis, G. (2020). Is green growth possible? New Political Economy, 25(4), 469 – 486 . https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2019.1598964

Hindriks, F., & Guala, F. (2015). Institutions, rules, and equilibria: A unified theory. Journal of Institutional Economics, 11(3), 459 – 480. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1744137414000496

Hodgson, G. M. (2015). On defining institutions: Rules versus equilibria . Journal of Institutional Economics, 11(3), 497 – 505. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1744137415000028

Hossain, N., Khurana, N., Mohmand, S. K., Nazneen, S., Oosterom, M., Roberts, T., . . . Schröder, P. (2018). What does closing civic space mean for development? A literature review and proposed conceptual framework. IDS Working Paper No. 515. https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/13962/Wp515_Online.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

House, E. R. (1997). Evaluation in the government marketplace. Evaluation Practice, 18(1), 37 – 48. https://doi.org/10.1177/109821409701800104

House, E. R., & Howe, K. R. (1999). Values in evaluation and social research. SAGE.

Innes, J. E., & Booher, D. E. (2010). Planning with complexity: An introduction to collaborative rationality for public policy. Routledge.

IPBES. (2019). Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. IPBES Secretariat . https://ipbes.net/sites/default/files/2020-02/ipbes_global_assessment_report_summary_for_policymakers_en.pdf

Jacobs, S., Zafra-Calvo, N., Gonzalez-Jimenez, D., Guibrunet, L., Benessaiah, K., Berghöfer, A., . . . Balvanera, P. (2020). Use your power for good: Plural valuation of nature: The Oaxaca statement. Global Sustainability, 3, e8 . https://doi.org/10.1017/sus.2020.2

Kauffman, C. M., & Martin, P. L. (2018, April 4). When rivers have rights: Case comparisons of New Zealand, Colombia, and India. International Studies Association Annual Conference Proceedings, San Francisco. http://files.harmonywithnatureun.org/uploads/upload585.pdf

Khaskheli, J. (2020, September 30). Violations of river rights not letting Indus reach its delta: Experts. The International News. https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/722182violations-of-river-rights-not-letting-indus-reach-its-delta-experts

Kimmich, C., Gallagher, L., Kopainsky, B., Dubois, M., Sovann, C., Buth, C., & Bréthaut, C. (2019). Participatory modeling updates expectations for individuals and groups, catalyzing behavior change and collective action in water-energy-food nexus governance. Earth’s Future, 7(12), 1337 – 1352. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019ef001311

Kingston, C., & Caballero, G. (2009). Comparing theories of institutional change. Journal of Institutional Economics, 5(2), 151 – 180. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1744137409001283

Latulippe, N., & Klenk, N. (2020). Making room and moving over: Knowledge co-production, Indigenous knowledge sovereignty and the politics of global environmental change decision-making. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 42, 7 – 14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2019.10.010

Leach, M., Rockström, J., Raskin, P., Scoones, I., Stirling, A. C., Smith, A., . . . Olsson , P. (2012). Transforming innovation for sustainability. Ecology and Society, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.5751/es-04933-170211

Lent, J. R. (2017). The patterning instinct: A cultural history of humanity’s search for meaning. Prometheus Books .

Lindenmayer, D. B., Piggott, M. P., & Wintle, B. A. (2013). Counting the books while the library burns: Why conservation monitoring programs need a plan for action. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 11(10), 549 – 555. https://doi.org/10.1890/120220

Mansaray, A.-B. S., & Aamodt, J. (2017). The Rights of Nature may improve water and sanitation in Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone Journal of Biomedical Research, 9(2), 8 – 12. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/sljbr/article/view/171628

Mertens, D. M. (2009). Transformative research and evaluation. Guilford Press.

Moore, S. J. , & Nesterova, Y. ( 2020 ). Indigenous knowledges and ways of knowing for a sustainable living. Paper commissioned for the UNESCO Futures of Education Report. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344821411_Indigenous_knowledges_and_ways_of_knowing_for_a_sustainable_living

Mustonen, T., Feodoroff, P., with the Skolt Sámi Fishermen of Sevettijärvi. (2018). Skolt Sámi and atlantic salmon collaborative management of Näätämö Watershed, Finland as a case of Indigenous evaluation and knowledge in the Eurasian Arctic. New Directions for Evaluation, 2018(159), 107 – 119. https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.20334

Nalau, J., & Handmer, J. (2015). When is transformation a viable policy alternative? Environmental Science & Policy, 54, 349 – 356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.07.022

North, D. C. (1990). Institutions, institutional change, and economic performance. Cambridge University Press.

O’Brien , K. (2018). Is the 1.5°C target possible? Exploring the three spheres of transformation. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 31, 153 – 160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2018.04.010

O’Donnell, E. (2020). Legal rights for rivers: Competition, collaboration and water governance. Routledge.

OECD-DAC Network. (2019). Better criteria for better evaluation: Revised evaluation criteria, definitions and principles for use. OECD. https://search.oecd.org/dac/evaluation/revised-evaluation-criteria-dec-2019.pdf

Ostrom , E. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press.

Pascual, U., Adams, W. M., Díaz, S., Lele, S., Mace, G. M., & Turnhout, E. (2021). Biodiversity and the challenge of pluralism. Nature Sustainability, 4, 567 – 572. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00694-7

Patton , M. Q. (2011). Developmental evaluation: Applying complexity concepts to enhance innovation and use. Guilford Press.

Patton, M. Q. (2019). Blue marble evaluation: Premises and principles. Guilford Press.

Pereira, L. M., Davies, K. K., den Belder, E., Ferrier, S., Karlsson -Vinkhuyzen, S., Kim , H., . . . Lundquist, C. J. (2020). Developing multiscale and integrative nature-people scenarios using the Nature Futures Framework. People and Nature, 2(4), 1172 – 1195. https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10146

Picciotto, R. (2020). From disenchantment to renewal. Evaluation, 26(1), 49 – 60. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356389019897696

Pickering, J., & Persson, Å. (2020). Democratising planetary boundaries: Experts, social values and deliberative risk evaluation in Earth system governance. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 22(1), 59 – 71. https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908x.2019.1661233

Pope Francis. (2015). Evangelium vitae [Encyclical letter]: On care for our common home. The Vatican. http://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html

Raffaelli, R. , & Glynn , M. A. ( 2015 ). Institutional Innovation: Novel, useful and legitimate. In C. E. Shalley, M. A. Hitt, & J. Zhou (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship (pp. 407-420). Oxford University Press .

Redford, K. H., Cook, C., Biggs, D., & Eoyang, G. (2020). Nature: Connecting well-being and conservation praxis. In B. A. Parsons, L. Dhillon, & M. Keene (Eds.), Visionary evaluation for a sustainable, equitable future (pp. 95 – 109). Information Age.

Reichert, P., Langhans, S. D., Lienert, J., & Schuwirth, N. (2015). The conceptual foundation of environmental decision support. Journal of Environmental Management, 154, 316 –332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.01.053. Medline:25748599

Republic of Ecuador. (2008). Title II: Rights: Chapter seven: Rights of nature. Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador. https://therightsofnature.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/Rights-for-Nature-Articles-in-Ecuadors-Constitution.pdf

Richardson, B. J. (2008). The ties that bind: Indigenous peoples and environmental governance. In B. J. Richardson, S. Imai, & K. McNeil (Eds.), Indigenous peoples and the law: Comparative and critical perspectives (pp. 337-370). Hart Publishing.

Robinson, D. F., & Raven, M. (2020). Recognising Indigenous customary law of totemic plant species: Challenges and pathways. The Geographical Journal, 186(1), 31 – 44. https://doi.org/10.1111/geoj.12320

Rosati, E. (2017). The Monkey selfie case and the concept of authorship: An EU perspective. Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice, 12(12), 973 – 977. https://doi.org/10.1093/jiplp/jpx199

Rowe, A. (2019). Sustainability-ready evaluation: A call to action. New Directions for Evaluation, 2019(162), 29 – 48. https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.20365

Rowe, A. (2021). Evaluation at the nexus: Evaluating sustainable development in the 2020s. In J. I. Uitto (Ed.), Evaluating environment in international development (2nd ed., pp. 46 – 60). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003094821-4

Sandbrook, C. (2015). What is conservation? Oryx, 49(4), 565 – 566. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605315000952

Sarkki, S., & Acosta García, N. (2019). Merging social equity and conservation goals in IPBES. Conservation Biology, 33(5), 1214 – 1218. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13297. Medline:30729586

Schoukens, H. (2019). Granting legal personhood to nature in the European Union: Contemplating a legal (r)evolution to avoid an ecological collapse? (Part II). Journal for European Environmental & Planning Law, 16(1), 65 – 90. https://doi.org/10.1163/18760104-01601005

Schwandt, T. A. (2018). Evaluative thinking as a collaborative social practice: The case of boundary judgment making. New Directions for Evaluation, 2018(158), 125 – 137. https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.20318

Schwandt, T. A. (2019). Post-normal evaluation? Evaluation, 25(3), 317 – 329. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356389019855501

Scoones, I. , Leach, M., & Newell, P. (2015). The politics of green transformations. In I. Scoones, M. Leach, & P. Newell (Eds.), The politics of green transformations (pp. 1 – 24). Routledge.

Stame, N. (2018). Strengthening the ethical expertise of evaluators. Evaluation, 24(4), 438 – 451. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356389018804942

Stirling, A. (2014). Emancipating transformations: From controlling “the transition” to culturing plural radical progress . In I. Scoones, M. Leach, & P. Newell (Eds.), The politics of green transformations (pp. 54 – 67). Routledge.

Stone, C. D. (1996). Should trees have standing? And other essays on law, morals and the environment. Oceana Publications.

Sword-Daniels, V., & Henderson, E. (2020). Learning to evaluate transformational change. https://www.itad.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Itad_TP_1_Transformational_Change.pdf

Toboso, F. (1995). Explaining the process of change taking place in legal rules and social norms: The cases of institutional economics and new institutional economics . European Journal of Law and Economics, 2(1), 63 – 84. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01540824

Uitto, J. I. (2021). Evaluating environment in international development. In J. I. Uitto (Ed.), Evaluating environment in international development (2nd ed. ; pp. 3-24). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003094821

Uitto, J. I., Puri , J., & van den Berg, R. D. (Eds.). (2017). Evaluating climate change action for sustainable development. Springer International.

Ulrich, W., & Reynolds, M. (2020). Critical systems heuristics: The idea and practice of boundary critique. In M. Reynolds & S. Holwell (Eds.), Systems approaches to making change: A practical guide (pp. 255 – 306). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-14471-7472-1_6

United Nations (UN). (2015a). The Paris agreement: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_paris_agreement.pdf

United Nations (UN). (2015b). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. Resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly on 25 September 2015 (A/RES/70/1). https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2019). Environmental rule of law: First global report. https://www.unep.org/resources/assessment/environmental-rule-lawfirst-global-report

van den Berg, R. D., Magro, C., & Salinas Mulder, S. (Eds.). (2019). Evaluation for transformational change: Opportunities and challenges for the Sustainable Development Goals. International Development Evaluation Association (IDEAS). https://ideas-global.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/2019-11-05-Final_IDEAS_EvaluationForTransformationalChange.pdf

Vatn, A. (2005). Institutions and the environment. Edward Elgar.

Waapalaneexkweew (Nicole R. Bowman). ( 2018 ). Looking backward but moving forward: Honoring the sacred and asserting the sovereign in Indigenous evaluation. American Journal of Evaluation, 39(4), 543 – 568. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214018790412

Waddock, S. (2018). Narrative, memes, and the prospect of large systems change. Humanistic Management Journal, 3(1), 17 – 45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41463-018-0039-9

Wehipeihana, N., & McKegg, K. (2018). Values and culture in evaluative thinking: Insights from Aotearoa New Zealand. New Directions for Evaluation, 2018(158), 93 – 107. https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.20320

Wilson, G. (2017). Draft universal declaration of river rights. Earth Law Center. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/55914fd1e4b01fb0b851a814/t/59c5a79ba8b2b0dc3295a8af/1506125725815/Universal+Declaration+of+River+Rights+%28Draft%29_Sept+2017.pdf

Young, O. R. (2017). Beyond regulation: Innovative strategies for governing large complex systems . Sustainability, 9(6), 938. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9060938

Yunkaporta, T. (2020). Sand talk: How Indigenous thinking can save the world. Text.

Zafra-Calvo, N., Balvanera, P., Pascual, U., Merçon, J., Martín-López, B., van Noordwijk, M., . . . Díaz, S. (2020). Plural valuation of nature for equity and sustainability: Insights from the Global South. Global Environmental Change, 63, 102115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102115

Zazueta, A. E., & Garcia, J. R. (2021). Multiple actors and confounding factors. In J. I. Uitto (Ed.), Evaluating environment in international development (2nd ed., pp. 46 – 60). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/978100309482

Downloads

Published

2023-04-21

How to Cite

Gallagher, L., & Ofir, Z. (2023). The Rights of Nature: An Emerging Transformation Opportunity for Evaluation. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, 36(2), 141–161. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjpe.71575

Issue

Section

Thematic Segment: Transforming Evaluation Practice for ‘Business Unusual’